A 1995 psychology paper, or maybe a couple.

Correlational vs. Causal Research /Thinking February 10, 1995
Jesse Willis

Causal research is a statistical way of measuring the effect an independent variable has upon a dependent variable. In Causal research the independent variable is applied to subjects at varying amounts (for example levels of none, low, medium and high could be used) then these different levels are measured against the dependent variable. Causal research is good at explaining what is being effected and by what. Unfortunately this type of experimentation requires strict laboratory conditions that are artificial and have limited general application. Often these laboratory conditions are potentially invasive and may involve ethical dilemmas that make experimentation impossible or impractical.

Correlational research is a statistical way of measuring the extent to which two factors vary together and how well either factor predicts the other. When doing correlational research, the calculation of the correlational coefficient expresses the relationship the two factors have two each other. A positive correlational relationship are statistical factors that climb or decline with each other. A negative coefficient has a relationship where one factor rises while the other falls. Correlational studies are good at predicting outcomes and are applicable to many different variables with little invasiveness and lower cost morally and financially. Many ethical considerations that happen in experimental or causal research is avoided in correlational research as no-one is having anything inflicted upon them. Unfortunately the same things that make correlational research a good psychological tool also cause problems. The lack of laboratory conditions in which other unknown variables are restricted or eliminated are hard to exclude from effecting measurements. Even more distressing is the lack of a sufficient basis in correlational studies to draw conclusions about cause.

In my own life there are three variables that seem to have some degree of positive or negative correlation with the changing phases of my “stress level”. These factors are money, responsibility, and noise. It is my belief that because these are things that effect my stress level and I would assume that these same factors may effect other people. There seems to be a correlation between the amount of money I have and the amount of stress I feel. This relationship is a negative one. The more money I have the less stress I feel and conversely the less money I have the more stress I feel. I also think there is a positive relationship between the amount of responsibility I have and the amount of stress I feel. When I have many responsibilities I become stressed out and my temper and tolerance becomes short. These two factors seem to be correlated. Therefore it may be interesting to do further research into the relationship between responsibility and stress. My third factor correlated with my stress level is noise. When I am inundated with a lot of noise I feel very stressed. The more noise there is the more stressed I am. Just like responsibility, if I get to much of the stressor I become ‘stressed-out’. There is a positive relationship between level of noise and level of stress. This third factor effecting my stress level (noise) is what I will design an experiment for. The questions now are: Does noise (the independent variable) induce the dependent variable (stress)? Is it related at all? Is it a coincidence? These are the questions that are being tested for.


Causal Research Study of the Effect of Noise Level on Stress Level

Methodology
Subjects for the experiment:
The subjects for this experiment will consist of a random sampling of 1000 Canadians between the ages of 19 and 72. The subjects will be recruited from persons voting in local elections and non-psychology students at local secondary education institutions.
Apparatus for the experiment:
-1 classroom with seating for 25.
-2000 Standard Willis Stress Scale forms.
To monitor the levels of stress induced by the experiments one method of recording stress levels will be used. This will be a Standard Willis Stress Scale that is basically a self reporting questionnaire that allows for scoring of stress levels between one and ten. One is the lowest 10 is the highest on this scale.
-2000 Easy Crossword puzzles. To give to the subjects during the stressors (or absence of them in group “A”) this crossword puzzle is taken from “The Province” weekend paper and should take between 5 - 15 minutes to complete.
-A clock with count down capabilities. This will be used to calculate accurately the same amount of time for each group.
-3 audio tapes (the stressors) one recording of people talking, one recording of a morning talk radio show, one recording of an obviously inexperienced person practicing “Chopsticks” on a piano.
-3 audio tape players with amplifiers, for playing the stressors (audio tapes). The dials will be marked with the varying levels of decibel output 40 dB, 55 dB and 80 dB respectively.
-1 decibel measuring device. This will be used to calibrate the correct levels at which to play the audio tapes.
Procedures for the experiment:
Four groups will be compared for analysis. The groups will be tested in batches of 25. 40 batches of tests will be given. Four groups of 250 will be tested these groups will be labeled groups “A”, “B”, ”C” and “D”.
The first group (“A”) will be given the “easy crossword puzzle” that all subjects will receive and are measured before and after with the “Willis Scale”.
The second group (“B”) will fill out the first “Willis Scale” form then this group will be given the easy cross word puzzle to fill out during the 10 minute long experiment they will be inundated with the sounds of people talking at a level of 40 decibels. Again they will be asked to fill out their stress levels after the puzzle and noise.
The third group (“C”) will fill out the “Willis Scale” form before and after the stressors and puzzle. During the puzzle they will listen to the sounds of people talking at a level of 40 decibels, and the pre-recorded sounds a morning talk radio show at 55 decibels.
The Fourth Group (“D”) will fill out the “Willis Scale” form both before and after the stressors and puzzle are applied. This group will listen to the pre recorded sounds of people talking at a level of 40 decibels. They will also listen to the pre-recorded sound of a morning talk radio show at 55 decibels. They will also hear the pre-recorded sound of an obviously inexperienced person practicing “Chopsticks” on a piano at 80 decibels.
When all of the testing is complete the responses will be analyzed.
If the test results show that there is a pattern formed that is ascending (high noise = high stress) it can be established that noise causes an effect of stress. Therefore, more noise, more stress. Cause and effect.

(A) Biographical Information:
Name: John Smith (Name changed for client confidentiality).
Age: 44 (Middle Adult).
Gender: Male.
Marital Status: Married.
Birth Order: First of two.
Occupation: Air Traffic Controller.
Number of children: 2.
(B) Assessment of Cognitive Development and Functioning:
One of the pioneers of modern psychology Jean Piaget, theorized that cognitive development occurred in four stages. These stages mapped out the development of reasoning skills from birth to mid-adolescence. At or around 11 or 12 years of age they enter the final stage called ‘Formal Operations.' The ability to reason abstractly characterizes this final stage of Piaget’s model of cognitive development.
Since the general recognition of the value of Piaget’s theory many psychologists have criticized the strictness of the age boundaries between levels. The modern Psychologists believe that as a rule these stages are more gradual than the sudden changes in cognition than Piaget laid out. As well in certain cases it is generally agreed upon that the development of cognition may not progress all the way to “Formal Operations” at all. The uneducated, those afflicted with Down’s Syndrome, brain damage or senility (as witnessed by a decline in fluid intelligence), can lose or never attain this final stage.
Jean Piaget’s model for cognitive development was directed at the study of children and adolescents; however this final stage is said to continue on throughout the rest of life.
I have concluded that John has entered the final stage of Piaget’s model because he reasons abstractly, understands and can perform inductive and deductive reasoning easily, and employs logical thought in day to day decision making.
Lawrence Kholberg developed a stage model that identified the different levels of moral reasoning. Morality is about what is right and wrong. Each person knows what is right or wrong for themselves, but few have determined why they feel that way in fact when logic is applied often moral opinions can seem irrational. An example is: “Doing drugs is bad.” Why is it bad? “Because it is against the law.” But, what if the law said you must do drugs? “Then it would be wrong not to do drugs.”. Examining reasoning such as this Kholberg was able to determine what level of moral reasoning is behind decisions of right and wrong in this case it would be a the “Law and Order” stage; because the way the laws are written determines what is good and bad. Kholberg’s proposition of an ascending ladder of morality, classifies the reasonings behind moral decisions in to six distinct stages.
According to Kholberg’s model John would be in “Level Three, The Postconventional, Autonomous or Principled level.” Upon further investigation it is plain that John subscribes his moral decision to Stage Six. John perceives what justice is in his own mind and then determines the necessary actions that need to be taken to provide that justice.
*See Appendix A - Kholberg for complete assessment.
(C) Assessment of Psychosocial or Personality Development:
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial development theory espouses a philosophy of time (age) bounded tasks that must be accomplished to become psychologically healthy. Erikson believed that progression through eight steps of life from birth thru old age determined the psychosocial development of people. Critics cite numerous examples where these crossroads in life are not met within the proscribed time or not at all. These so called ‘life decisions’ are seen as positive and negative by Erikson but leave much to be desired by his critics. Not everyone agrees that all of these stages happen. That they are only positive or negative, and some would disagree that “Close heterosexual relationship[s] and procreation” are the only decisions of a positive nature possible (Handout 2.1).
John Smith falls under the category of middle age. This stage (according to Erikson’s theory) is characterized by a struggle between ‘generativity and stagnation.' Generativity is defined as “being productive and supporting future generations [often offspring]” (Myers, 1992, p. 118). Here, stagnation would be defined as “self indulgence and possible social and psychological impoverishment” (Handout 2.1). John would fit in to both these categories somewhat, paying for his children’s education (generativity) and buying a sports car (stagnation).
Social theorist Daniel Levinson also has something to say about personality development. His belief based upon interviews is “...as people enter their 40’s they undergo a ‘midlife transition’ for which many is a crisis” (Meyers, 1992, p. 116).
Trepidation from the change of life stages like adulthood, marriage, and middle age are common. In western societies age is often considered a detriment and can cause fear and anxiety in the progression of these stages that seem beyond our control. In our society the recording of years by birthday parties may start out as a happy occasion for a child, but later on in life it can be dreaded. Women especially can become obsessed with concealment of the eternal plodding along of time marked by birthdays. Our society seems less concerned with the aging of men for some reason. Although this concealment often reverses itself after a certain number of years, becoming a badge of achievement (‘I have been on this earth 98 years young whippersnapper’). This incestuous relationship between age and self-worth can often result in embarrassment and avoidance of age related questions. In eastern traditions age is revered and looked forward to. The elderly are respected. With age comes that respect and the perception of wisdom by the young.
In John’s case a possible mid-life crisis was, marked by the purchase of a sports car (black not the traditional red). John is unsure that this was indeed a mid-life crisis point. It was just the realization of a longtime dream to own an Alpha Romeo, conveniently corresponding with the leaving home of his eldest son.
(D) Assessment of The Individual Traits of Temperament:
Temperament was first discussed by the ancient Greeks. What makes people have different personalities? By the middle ages they were sure it had to do with four humors any combination of these four could make any personality. Temperament is personality and emotional excitability (Meyers, 1992, p. 77), inborn and learned, it is poorly understood.
Unsure of the validity of the Temperament Handout 3-4, I asked John to fill it out twice. The first time was in the morning after driving to work on a Tuesday (John’s first day of work that week). The second was on his day off. The results are not identical.


John’s Scores
#1 #2 Average Score (Male)
Fear: -------- 9 ------ 8 ------------------- 10.8
Activity: -------- 12 ------ 13 ------------------- 12.8
Distress: -------- 11 ------ 8 ------------------- 9.7
Sociability: ------- 11 ------ 12 ------------------- 14.6
Anger: ------- 14 ------ 14 ------------------- 10.8

(E) Appendixes A & B
Appendix A: Methods Used To Assess Levels Of Functioning
Kholberg’s Moral Dilemma:
In Europe, a woman was near death from a
very bad disease, a special kind of cancer. There
was one drug that the doctors thought might save
her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the
same town had recently discovered. The drug was
expensive to make, but the druggist was charging
ten times what it cost him to make. He paid $200
for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small
dose of the drug. The sick woman’s husband,
Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the
money, but he could get together only about
$1,000, which of half of what it cost. He told the
druggist that his wife was dying and asked it to sell
it to him cheaper or let him pay later. But the
druggist said, “No, I discovered the drug and I’m
going to make money from it.” Heinz got desperate
and broke in to the man’s store to steal the drug for
his wife (Meyers, 1992, p. 99).
Morality Interview
In two half hour interviews, I got this from John:
(In response to the “Radium drug” question proposed by Kholberg, the question was: Was Heinz right in doing this or wrong?) “Unreservedly and absolutely I would support Heinz in his actions. He was completely in the right and I would have done the same.”
(Why?) “The right to have your property protected is infinitesimal compared to the right to life. I don’t care if this is against the law or that the druggist might not be happy about it.”
(What if the same situation was occurring, but this was an experimental drug, not only was their no more of it but it would not be able to be made again. In this case if Heinz stole it no one else in the world benefit from this drug. Would you still support Heinz?)[Pause]Yes. [Pause] It would still be the right thing to do, the drug was so overpriced as to be unobtainable. My duty, Heinz’s duty, is to his wife.”
(What values do you have?) “...there are no strictly set values....[there are]...only principles of life that must be upheld.”
(Like what?) “That all people even if not ‘created’ equally should be treated equally.”
(In response to question on race relations.) “I always tell my daughter that it is okay and right to hate a Black, an Asian or whatever, people you can hate come in all colours. But it is unacceptable, to hate all Blacks, all Asians etceteras. Hating, and loving all people on their own individual merits not by generalities of race.
Appendix B: Definitions
Accommodation: Adaptation of current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information (Meyers, 1992, p. 70).
Crystallized Intelligence: Ones accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age (Meyers, 1992, p. 115).
Fluid Intelligence: One’s ability to reason abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood (Meyers, 1992, p. 115).
Intrinsic Motivation: A desire to perform behavior for its own sake and to be effective (Meyers, 1992, p. 373).
Adaptation Level Phenomenon: The tendency for our judgments (of sounds, lights, income) to be relative to a “Neutral” level defined by our experience (Meyers, 1992, p. 398).
Gender Schema Theory: The theory that children learn from cultures a concept of what it means to be male and female and adjust their behavior accordingly (Meyers, 1992, p. 605).
Oral or Anal Fixation: According to Freudian psychology, a locking of pleasure seeking energies at either the Oral or Anal stage of psychosexual theory resulting in abnormal fixation with said stage.
Projection: In Psychoanalytic theory, the defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others (Meyers, 1992, p. 416).
Learned Helplessness: The hopelessness and passive resignation learned when an animal or human is unable to avoid repeated aversive events (Meyers, 1992, p. 436).
(F) References:
Handouts From Class:
-“EAS Temperament Survey”. Handout 3-4.
-“Highlights of Piaget’s Stages of development”.
-“Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development”. Table 2.1.
-“Kholberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning”.
-“A developmental map of the Life Cycle and Its Context”
Figure 6.1

Lerner, R, & Hitsch, D. (1983) Human Development: A Life Span Perspective. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Meyers, D. (1992). Psychology. Holland: Worth Publishers.

Poon, L. (Ed.). (1980). Aging In The 1980’s: Psychological Issues. Washington: American


An Examination of Stress and The Stress Response System

by
Jesse Willis

PsychologyAssignment # 2
Section 71
Instructor:
Michael MacNeil
March 24, 1995

Stress is an illusive and difficult to understand concept for humanity. Unlike hunger pangs which induces a person to eat we are often unsure what a stress response wants us to do. The “fight or flight” response is often inappropriate to many modern stressful situations if something is uncontrollable fight or flight have little use, in fact that sort of response may in fact badly harm us. The stress response has been linked to adverse effects upon the human body like heart disease from a build up of the stress hormones in artery walls. Stress has also been shown to have an adverse effect upon the immune system increasing risks of disease. The dangers of the stress response system are many but the benefits are also apparent. without the extra readiness given us by the stress response many dangerous situations might go off a lot worse than they do. Benefits of the general alarm are legion; a greater strength is provided due to a rush of blood to the muscles clarity of perception thinking and sensory information gathering without these enhanced skills in times of emergency humanity would not exist.
To understand stress it is useful to examine the physical parts involved in the determination and carrying out of stress and stress response system. The brain as the thinking center of the body is intimately tied to stress. The brain acts as the communications, command and distribution center for the body. This is where the receiving, processing and shipping of stressor and the stress response system is centered.
Receiving of stressors is the first step in the stress response system. Stressors are perceived by all five of the senses from sight (seeing danger approaching), smell (bad smells can be stressors especially when uncontrollable), touch (pain or burning for example), hearing (which is susceptible when exposed to unpredictable and uncontrollable loud noises) and finally even taste can be subject to stressors in the case of dangerous substances. All stressors come through the senses, however some senses don’t have much of a way to manually block themselves. Eyes have eyelids which allows to stop looking at stressful things (a particularly gory horror movie scene for example). Ears don’t have earlids. If a sound is loud and unpredictable we cannot manually block it out without using our hands.
Once the sensory information is received it is processed by the cerebral cortex where sensory information is compared with past experience and analyzed for danger. Once the information is passed to the cerebral cortex it can be recognized as a stressor this will trigger off a complex sequence of reactions. Simultaneously the sympathetic nervous system releases the stress hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal gland while the hypothalamus receiving direction from the cerebral cortex stimulates the pituitary gland which then releases pituitary hormone, when this hormone reaches the adrenal gland the stress hormone cortisol is released.
Once these hormones are in the body several reactions happen. Skeletal muscles tense up and have blood diverted to them, heart and respiration rates increase, and fat is released from the body’s stores. All these effects are in preparation for the so called “flight or fight” reaction. This reaction readies the body to either confront the stressor (fight) or to run or get away from it (flight).
One of the disadvantages of the stress response is the general adaptation syndrome which comes in to effect when a stressor does not go away. This syndrome is marked by three individual stages. The first: In response to a stressor the body sends out a general alarm in response to any stress. This has the effect of readying the body to deal with the stressor. Second, the stressor is attempted to have been coped with (resistance). Finally if the stressor persists exhaustion follows. Exhaustion is characterized by decreased immune system levels fatigue and sometimes even death. The point of general adaptation syndrome is that with prolonged stressors physical and mental damage can be done. It is ironic that the same hormones released during stress and which are designed to help us handle difficult situations are also very dangerous to the human body over the long term. Long term and frequent exposures are shown to cause everything from peptic ulcers, heart disease, susceptibility to immune system attacks even cancer and brain damage. It has even been shown to cause overall general poorer health down the road for those experiencing even small amounts of long term stress.
Also involved with the stress response system is emotion. Our emotions are tied to the limbic system in the brain and the amygdala. Negative emotions can cause stress just like an outside stressor which will start the stimulation of the adrenal gland releasing cortisol acting as a stress hormone. With prolonged exposure damage can occur in the body. This tie between emotions and stress shows up when people feel out of control. On the other side of the coin positive emotions and thinking can help the body recover from damage. Optimism has been shown to reduce recovery time from major surgery. Systems theory ties the mind with the body so that how we think can effect how our body responds. Other applications of this theory have come in to existence such as biofeedback techniques for controlling stress response through monitoring and mental control of previously thought to be unregulatable body functions like heart rate. In the same vein relaxation exercises have been cited for being able to control the previously uncontrollable stress around you.
From all of this we can divine a very interesting fact perception of control over potential or actual stressors is the most important factor in how we respond to that stressor. If no control is perceived stress levels will increase and if the stressor doesn’t stop it can have an adverse effect on physical and mental health.


References:

Carlson, Neil R. (1995). Physiological Psychology 3rd ed. Needham Heights: Allyn Bacon.

Meyers, D. (1992). Psychology. Holland: Worth Publishers.